Month: Jul 2023

Introduction

Translating the Qur’an is a complex process, amplified by its sacred nature and significance in the lives of Muslims. English translations of the Qur’an have served as a battleground for power struggles between different cultural and religious identities, shaping perceptions and interpretations. These translations reflect the interplay between Islam and the English-speaking World, navigating linguistic, cultural, and religious complexities. This post will explore the historical context, the roles of translators, and the dynamics involved in these translations, highlighting the complex interplay between Islam and the English-speaking world.

I. History of English Translations of the Qur’an

English translations by non-Muslims

English translations by non-Muslims have played a significant role in shaping the perception of Islam throughout history. These translations aimed to influence public opinion and often carried a negative bias against the Qur’an and its teachings. Alexander Ross’s 1649 translation explicitly sought to attack and discredit the Qur’an, presenting it as a false and inferior text. George Sale’s influential 1734 rendition went beyond criticism and portrayed Prophet Muhammad as a plagiarizer, questioning the originality and authenticity of the Qur’an. J.M. Rodwell’s 1861 translation focused on understanding Muhammad’s mind, perpetuating negative narratives by depicting him as a syncretistic plagiarizer and an epileptic. Edward Henry Palmer’s 1880 translation adopted a detached approach, treating the Qur’an as an artifact of academic interest rather than a sacred scripture. Richard Bell’s 1937-39 translation emphasized textual analysis and the redaction process, undermining the Qur’an’s coherence and divine origin.

These translations by non-Muslims played a significant role in shaping the narrative around the Qur’an and Islam. They aimed to criticize and undermine the Qur’an while reinforcing negative stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam. By presenting biased and distorted interpretations, these translations contributed to the construction of an antagonistic image of Islam within English-speaking societies. Their impact extended beyond the translations themselves, influencing public perception and reinforcing power imbalances between the English-speaking World and Islamic cultures.

English translations by Muslims

In response to the translations by non-Muslims that aimed to undermine and distort the Qur’an, Muslim translators took it upon themselves to provide accurate and authentic renditions of the sacred text. These Muslim-authored translations were driven by a deep desire to revitalize Islam and ensure that the true meaning of the Qur’an was accessible to English-speaking audiences.

Notable Muslim translators, such as Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Rashad Khalifa, Ahmed Ali, and Muhammad Asad, played significant roles in this endeavour. Each translator brought their unique perspectives and motivations to the translation process. For example, Pickthall’s translation aimed to convey the meaning of the Qur’an as understood by Muslims worldwide, catering specifically to English-speaking Muslims. Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translation went beyond a mere rendering of the text, incorporating extensive notes and interpretations to offer a comprehensive understanding of the Qur’an. Rashad Khalifa’s translation took a distinctive approach by attempting to “prove” the divine origin of the Qur’an through numerology, sparking debates within Muslim communities. These Muslim-authored translations collectively sought to present an authentic representation of the Qur’an’s message, countering the distorted interpretations propagated by non-Muslim translations and providing English-speaking audiences with a faithful reflection of the Qur’an’s teachings.

II. Debates within Islam on Qur’an translation

Debates within Islam regarding the translation of the Qur’an have been ongoing and multifaceted. One aspect of this discussion centres around whether it is permissible and effective to translate the Qur’an into languages other than Arabic. Some scholars argue that the Qur’an’s inimitability lies primarily in its meaning, making translation a valid means of making its teachings accessible to a broader audience. They believe that while certain linguistic nuances may be lost in translation, the core message and essence of the Qur’an can still be effectively conveyed.

On the other hand, there are those who emphasize the significance of Arabic recitation and assert that the Qur’an’s miraculous nature is intricately tied to its specific linguistic form. According to this viewpoint, the rhythmic, rhyming, and eloquent qualities of the Qur’an cannot be fully captured in translation, and learning Arabic is essential to fully appreciate its aesthetic and linguistic dimensions. These differing perspectives reflect the broader theoretical discussions surrounding the challenges of translating sacred texts and highlight the complex nature of conveying the message of the Qur’an in another language. Ultimately, these debates emphasize the importance of approaching translations with an understanding of their limitations and the need for a deeper engagement with the Arabic language and interpretive traditions to fully grasp the nuances and richness of the Qur’an’s teachings.

III. Translation as a Power Struggle

Translations of the Qur’an have been caught in the crossfire of power struggles between different cultural and religious identities. As noted above, non-Muslim translations sought to undermine and discredit the Qur’an, inadvertently fuelling the demand for authentic Muslim-authored translations. In response, Muslim translators endeavoured to present the true meaning of the Qur’an and counteract distorted interpretations, playing crucial roles as believing witnesses, colonizers of the receptor language, seekers for legitimacy, apologists, and reformers. These translations became a means of reclaiming the narrative surrounding the Qur’an and Islam, challenging the negative portrayals perpetuated by non-Muslim translations. However, they faced scepticism from orthodox Muslim groups, who questioned the fidelity of the translations and expressed concerns about potential distortions or biases. This power struggle within the realm of translation reflects the complex dynamics of power and identity, as different factions vie for control over the interpretation and dissemination of religious texts.

Conclusion

The history of English translations of the Qur’an reveals the multifaceted nature of translation and its profound impact on power dynamics and cultural representations. These translations, whether by non-Muslims or Muslims, have played significant roles in shaping public perception of Islam and engaging in debates about authenticity and legitimacy. They reflect the complexities of language, ideology, and religious identity, highlighting the ongoing struggles for control over the interpretation and dissemination of religious texts.

The diverse perspectives and motivations of translators underscore the contested nature of translation and its role in shaping narratives surrounding the Qur’an. While these translations have contributed to a broader understanding of the Qur’an among English-speaking audiences, they have also perpetuated biases and influenced power imbalances. As we navigate the complexities of translation, it is crucial to recognize the interplay between language, power, and identity, and strive for inclusive and nuanced interpretations that reflect the diverse voices and experiences within the Muslim community and beyond.

Further readings

Almond, Philip C. 1989. Heretical Hero: Muhammad and the Victorians. Studies in Oriental Religion, 18. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

Ayoub, M. 1986. “Translating the Meaning of the Qur’an: Traditional Opinions and Modern Debates.” Afkar-Inquiry 3, no. 5 (May): 34-39.

Cragg, Kenneth. 1988. “The Qur’an into English: A Translator’s Apology.” In Readings in the Qur’an, London: Collins Liturgical Publications.

Fischer, M.J. Mehdi, and Abedi. 1990. Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in Postmodernity and Tradition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin, ed. 1986. World Bibliography of Translations of the Meanings of the Holy Qur’an — Printed Translations 1515-1980. Istanbul: Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture.

Khan, Mofakhar Hussain. 1986. “English Translation of the Holy Qur’an: A Bio-Bibliographic Study.” Islamic Quarterly 30: 82-108.

Kidwai, A.R. 1987. “Translating the Untranslatable: A Survey of English Translations of the Qur’an.” Muslim World Book Review 7, no. 4: 66-71.

Paret, R., and J.D. Pearson. 1986. “Translation of the Kur’ān.” Encyclopedia of Islam, new edition, 5: 429-432. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Greifenhagen, F.V. 1992. “Traduttore traditore: An Analysis of the History of English Translations of the Qur’an.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 3, no. 2: 274-291.

Introduction

The concept of religion has undergone significant transformations throughout European history, particularly during the Early Modern period and the Reformation. This essay aims to examine the impact of Latin translations of the Quran on the development of the concept of religion in Europe. By exploring the usage of the term dīn in the Quran and its diverse meanings, as well as the translation of dīn as lex in Latin and the factors influencing this linguistic choice, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of the concept of religion and the role played by Latin translations in shaping it.

The Evolution of the Concept of Religion

Religion in Europe has evolved over time. Initially, religio referred to devotion and piety in ancient worship. In the Middle Ages, different terms were used to describe religious practices. The Reformation in the 16th century associated religio with Christian worship, expanding its meaning to include personal faith. This redefinition of religion emphasized individual belief and personal devotion, shifting the focus away from external practices.

The Reformation redefined religion in Europe, placing emphasis on personal faith over external rituals. This broader understanding of religio centered on individual relationships with God and recognized diverse forms of worship and beliefs beyond Christianity. This transformation fostered religious tolerance and coexistence in Europe.

The Meaning of Dīn in the Quran

The term dīn in the Quran carries multiple meanings. Initially, it represents the Day of Judgment and retribution. Later, it encompasses religion as a comprehensive belief system, incorporating worship, faith, cult, law, and the community of believers. This broader understanding reflects the interplay between different linguistic and cultural patterns, influenced by Persian and Mazdaistic elements. The multifaceted usage of dīn in the Quran captures the complexity and depth of religious beliefs and practices, contributing to an inclusive understanding of religion within the Islamic tradition.

Translation of Dīn as Lex in Latin

In Latin translations of the Quran, dīn is rendered as lex instead of religio due to various factors. The Latin term religioexclusively referred to Christianity, making it unsuitable for describing Islam. On the other hand, the term lex had already been used to describe Judaism and Christianity to some extent, conveying the idea of a comprehensive religious system beyond a strict legal framework. Choosing lex as the translation captures the broader aspects of religion and highlights Islam as a distinct faith alongside Judaism and Christianity, emphasizing the religious concept rather than a narrow legalistic interpretation.

The Broader Implications

The use of lex as a translation for dīn in Latin Quran texts goes beyond a narrow legalistic view. It encompasses a comprehensive understanding of religious beliefs and practices, emphasizing the broader aspects of faith. This translation choice aims to highlight the conceptual equivalence of Christianity and Islam, capturing the essence of dīn as a religious concept. By employing lex collectively to convey the general meaning of religion, specific legal systems are transcended, and diverse expressions of faith are accommodated. These choices foster a broader, inclusive understanding of religion and its manifestations.

Conclusion

The Latin translations of the Quran played a significant role in shaping the concept of religion in Europe. By employing lex to translate dīn, these translations expanded the understanding of religion beyond a mere legal framework, aligning with the broader notion of religio that emerged during the Reformation. This linguistic choice facilitated the development of a generalized concept of religion encompassing various faiths, thereby paving the way for the modern understanding of religion in Europe. Further exploration of the Latin translations and their impact on religious discoursecan provide valuable insights into the historical development of religious concepts in European society.

Further Readings

Bobzin, Hartmut. 2006. “Translations of the Qurʾān.” Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 5, 340–358.

Feil, Ernst. 1986. Religio. Vol. 1: Die Geschichte eines neuzeitlichen Grundbegriffs vom Frühchristentum bis zur Reformation. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Feil, Ernst. 1997. Religio. Vol. 2: Die Geschichte eines neuzeitlichen Grundbegriffs zwischen Reformation und Rationalismus (ca. 1540–1620). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Glei, Reinhold, and Stefan Reichmuth. 2012. “Religion between Last Judgement, law and faith: Koranic dīn and its rendering in Latin translations of the Koran.” Religion 42 (2): 247-271.

Introduction

This post explores multiple English translations of the Qur’an, delving into the sectarian, ideological, and theological tendencies among translators. By examining specific examples, we uncover how different perspectives shape interpretations and impact the understanding of the Qur’an. From Shī’ites to Barelwis, Ahmadi to Mu’tazilite perspectives, and scientific rationalism to traditionalist and modernist approaches, we navigate the diverse landscape of translations. By engaging with these perspectives, we deepen our understanding of the Qur’an’s profound significance in the lives of Muslims worldwide.

Sectarian and Ideological Tendencies in Translations

The translations of S.V. Mir Ahmed Ali and M.H. Shakir exemplify sectarian and ideological biases within certain renditions of the Qur’an. These translations exhibit clear influences from Shī’ite perspectives, aligning with the theological viewpoints of Shia Islam. One notable manifestation of this influence is their emphasis on the Imamate, as evidenced by their choice to capitalize the word “imam” in verses such as Q 2:124. This deliberate capitalization serves to underscore the belief that the Imamate holds a status equivalent to that of Abraham. Furthermore, their interpretations of verses pertaining to the Prophet Muhammad’s family reflect a distinctive perspective within Shī’ite theology, emphasizing their sinlessness and profound significance. These interpretations diverge from mainstream Sunni interpretations. The translations of S.V. Mir Ahmed Ali and M.H. Shakir thus provide tangible examples of how their works are shaped by Shī’ite influences, particularly through the accentuation of the Imamate and the sinlessness of ‘Ali and his descendants.

Barelwi Emphases on the Prophet’s Status

Barelwi translations, exemplified by the work of Shah Faridul Haque, place a significant emphasis on the elevated status of the Prophet Muhammad. Haque’s translation, based on Shah Ahmad Raza Khan’s Kanzul Iman, incorporates expressions like “O beloved prophet!” and “O beloved” when Allah directly addresses the Prophet. These additional phrases serve to intensify the emotional connection and underscore the Prophet’s exalted position. Notably, these insertions extend beyond the original Arabic text, fostering a profound sense of reverence and love for the Prophet. Such a distinct approach observed in Kanzul Iman effectively captures the fervent devotion characterizing Barelwi beliefs, while emphasizing the Prophet’s esteemed standing within the broader Islamic tradition.

Ahmadi Perspectives

The translation by Zafrulla Khan, which represents Ahmadi perspectives, exhibits a subtle promotion of the teachings espoused by the Ahmadiyya Muslim community. Khan’s translation presents a distinctive interpretation of verses pertaining to the crucifixion of Jesus, diverging from the traditional Islamic viewpoint and aligning with Ahmadi beliefs. Specifically, Khan reinterprets verses Q 4:157-158 to refute the notion that Jesus died on the cross, instead emphasizing his survival and proposing that he was rescued from death. This alternative viewpoint challenges the prevailing understanding held by mainstream Muslims and reflects the distinct Ahmadi interpretation of the events surrounding Jesus’ life.

Mu’tazilite Influences

Certain translations of the Qur’an demonstrate a departure from the traditional interpretation of references to God’s throne, offering alternative renderings such as ‘Power,’ ‘Dominion,’ or ‘Authority.’ These translations bear the imprint of Mu’tazilite beliefs, which vehemently reject the attribution of any physical characteristics to God. According to Mu’tazilite doctrine, references to God’s throne in the Qur’an should be understood figuratively, as symbols or metaphors, disavowing the notion of a literal, physical throne or any corporeal attributes associated with God. Translations influenced by Mu’tazilite perspectives thus undertake a reinterpretation or even elimination of the conventional understanding of passages involving God’s throne. As a result, the term ‘arsh, for example, conventionally translated as ‘Throne,’ may be rendered as ‘Power,’ ‘Dominion,’ or ‘Authority’ in these translations. This departure from the established interpretation aligns with the Mu’tazilite rejection of any ascription of physical or anthropomorphic qualities to God.

Scientific Rationalism and Scientific Exegesis

Within the realm of Qur’an translations, the influence of scientific rationalism becomes evident as translators prioritize reason and scientific understanding to reconcile Islamic teachings with scientific discoveries. Notable among these translators is Muhammad Asad, who embraces a scientific rationalist perspective and presents alternative explanations for miraculous events in his Qur’an translation. For instance, Asad metaphorically interprets the verse describing Jesus fashioning a bird from clay and breathing life into it (Q 3:49), opting to remove the element of miracle associated with the bird. In his translation, he renders the term “ta’ir” as “destiny,” symbolically alluding to the spiritual revival of Jesus’ disciples. This approach aligns the narrative with scientific understanding while emphasizing the symbolic significance of the event.

Similarly, Ahmed Ali, another translator influenced by scientific rationalism, adopts a comparable strategy by aligning interpretations with scientific notions and removing the miraculous aspects from the Qur’anic text. In the same verse (Q 3:49), Ahmed Ali translates “ta’ir” as “shapes,” presenting a figurative understanding of Jesus’ miracles. This figurative interpretation highlights the symbolic meanings inherent in the miracles, surpassing their literal occurrence. Another translator, Zafrulla Khan, influenced by scientific rationalism, takes a similar path by interpreting the verse to indicate that Jesus metaphorically fashioned shapes from individuals capable of receiving an impression. This metaphorical representation symbolizes the spiritual transformation experienced by individuals. These translators exemplify the scientific rationalist approach through their alternative interpretations, which harmonize with scientific understanding and emphasize the metaphorical and symbolic dimensions of the Qur’anic narrative, rather than accepting miracles as literal events.

Traditionalist and Modernist Approaches to the Sharia

In Qur’an translations, distinctive approaches emerge when examining verses related to the Sharia, with traditionalist and modernist perspectives guiding the interpretations. Traditionalist translations, exemplified by Mohammed Pickthall’s work, exhibit a penchant for a literal understanding and a steadfast adherence to established norms. A prime illustration can be found in the translation of Q 4:34, which deals with the treatment of women. Pickthall’s rendition renders the passage as follows: “As for those from whom ye fear rebellion, admonish them and banish them to beds apart, and scourge them. Then if they obey you, seek not a way against them.” Here, Pickthall’s translation reflects the traditionalist orientation by meticulously adhering to the literal meaning of the Arabic text and upholding the conventional interpretation of the verse.

In contrast, modernist translations, such as those by Muhammad Asad, take into account contemporary societal norms when interpreting Sharia-related verses. An exemplification of this approach can be observed in Q 24:31, where Asad presents an alternative interpretation that aligns with modern sensibilities. He emphasizes the significance of dialogue and resolution over resorting to physical discipline, advocating for a more compassionate approach. Asad’s translation epitomizes the modernist perspective, as it contemplates the practical applicability of the law within the current era, acknowledging the spirit of the law alongside its historical context. In contrast to traditionalist understandings, as evidenced in translations by Yusuf Ali and Daryabadi, which prioritize modesty and the covering of adornments, Asad diverges by shedding light on the pre-Islamic custom of loosely-worn head-coverings. His interpretation advocates for a fundamental level of decency, advising women against flaunting charms beyond what is appropriate, thus suggesting the drawing of head-coverings over bosoms. A similar modernist inclination is echoed in Irving’s translation, instructing women to fold shawls over their bosoms. These alternative translations exemplify the modernist approach by considering the evolving social landscapes and establishing nuanced understandings that align with contemporary values.

Conclusion

The analysis of English translations of the Qur’an has revealed the diverse sectarian, ideological, and theological tendencies among translators. By critically engaging with multiple perspectives, we develop a comprehensive understanding of the Qur’an’s message and gain a deeper appreciation for the richness and complexity of Islamic scholarship. This analysis encourages exploration of diverse translations and recognition of the varied interpretations within the Islamic tradition. By navigating the complexities of the text with an open mind, we can form a well-informed understanding of the Qur’an’s significance and its enduring impact.

Further readings:

Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the Qur’an and Science. Delhi: Taj, 1990.

Ibn Taymiyyah. An Introduction to the Principles of Tafsir. Birmingham: al-Hidaayah, 1414/1993.

Khan, M.H. “English Translations of the Holy Qur’an: A Bio-bibliographic Study.” Islamic Quarterly 30(4) (1986): 82-108.

Robinson, Neal. Christ in Islam and Christianity. London & Albany: Macmillan & SUNY, 1991.

Robinson, Neal. “Sectarian and ideological bias in Muslim translations of the Qur’an.” Islam and Christian‐Muslim Relations 8, no. 3 (1997): 261-278.

Robinson, Neal. Discovering the Qur’an. London: SCM, 1996.

Introduction

Mark of Toledo’s Latin translation of the Qurʾān is a significant work commissioned by the Archbishop of Toledo, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, around 1210. This translation serves as an essential historical and cultural artifact that sheds light on the Christian perspective of the time and reflects the broader context of religious and political tensions between Christianity and Islam. In this post, we will explore various features of Mark’s translation, including his adherence to the Arabic “original”, his translation techniques, and the underlying motives behind his work.

Adherence to the Arabic Text

Mark’s translation stands as a testament to his unwavering commitment to faithfully render the Arabic “original” into Latin. What sets his translation apart is his meticulous attention to detail in preserving the linguistic structure of the Qurʾān. He recognizes the significance of word order, syntax, and vocabulary in maintaining the integrity of the sacred text. By placing such emphasis on fidelity, Mark demonstrates his profound dedication to providing Latin readers with an “accurate” rendition of the Islamic scripture, allowing them to access and engage with the profound teachings in their own language.

Root-Based Translations

A prominent feature of Mark’s translation is his consistent use of root-based translations. This technique involves translating words derived from the same Arabic root using related Latin words. By employing this approach, Mark highlights the semantic connections and etymological ties between these words. It allows readers to explore the interconnectedness of different concepts within the text, enriching their understanding of the Qurʾān. The deliberate utilization of root-based translations showcases Mark’s linguistic expertise and his commitment to preserving the inherent relationships between words, thereby ensuring a cohesive and comprehensive interpretation.

Literal Translation and Contextual Considerations

In his translation, Mark often favors literal renderings of Arabic words, focusing on their fundamental meanings rather than conveying subtle semantic nuances. This approach allows for a clear and straightforward understanding of the text. However, it occasionally overlooks the importance of contextual factors. For instance, in the translation of words like sabbiḥ and ḥamd in Sura 110, Mark translates both as “laudare/laus” without differentiation, despite their distinct connotations related to praise. While this approach may simplify the text, it disregards the deeper layers of meaning that context provides. Nonetheless, Mark demonstrates a more nuanced consideration of context in certain instances, such as his translation of tawwāban as “misericors,” which aligns with the intended meaning of the text. This selective consideration of context showcases Mark’s evolving approach to translation.

Influence of Christian Beliefs

Mark’s translation bears the unmistakable imprint of his Christian cultural background and reveals occasional influence from his own religious convictions. This influence becomes apparent in his choice of Latin words that align with Christian concepts and values. By translating certain terms, such as “tawwāban,” as “pius” and “propitium,” Mark introduces a theological interpretation within a Christian framework. These choices not only provide valuable insights into Mark’s personal beliefs but also serve the purpose of promoting Christian ideas and countering Islamic teachings within the translation itself. It is important to note that while Mark’s translation is influenced by his Christian worldview, it remains a product of his time and context.

Promoting Christian Conversion

To fully comprehend Mark’s translation, it is crucial to contextualize it within the larger political and cultural agenda of Archbishop Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada. Mark’s work was not conducted in isolation but was part of a concerted effort to challenge and discredit Islam while actively promoting Christian conversion. This agenda is reflected in the language and style of Mark’s translation, which were deliberately crafted to persuade readers to embrace Christianity and reject Islam. Through his translation, Mark played a crucial role in the broader endeavor to advance Christian dominance during a time of religious tension. While it is essential to acknowledge this agenda, it is equally important to recognize the translation’s historical significance and its impact on interreligious dialogue and intellectual discourse of that era.

Circulation and Usage

Mark’s translation had a profound impact on the circulation and usage of the Qurʾān among Latin-speaking Christians, particularly within Dominican circles. It reached scholars, theologians, and individuals who were knowledgeable in Arabic, providing them with direct access to the Islamic scripture and enabling theological discourse. The availability of a Latin translation expanded the opportunities for exploration and analysis of Islamic teachings, promoting a deeper understanding of Islam within Christian communities. Additionally, Mark’s translation played a crucial role in evangelization efforts, allowing Christian missionaries to engage with Muslims by presenting Christian teachings in a language they were familiar with. This facilitated theological dialogue, comparative studies, and intellectual exchanges between Christianity and Islam. Beyond academic circles, Mark’s translation resonated with individuals in Dominican communities, satisfying their curiosity and fostering spiritual growth as they sought insights into Islamic teachings. Ultimately, Mark’s translation contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of different religious traditions among Latin-speaking Christians.

Conclusion

Mark of Toledo’s Latin translation of the Qurʾān offers a unique perspective on the interactions between Christianity and Islam in the 13th century, reflecting fidelity to the Arabic “original” while revealing the influence of his Christian beliefs and the broader Christian agenda. The variations in translation choices, especially with nuanced words like tawwāb, highlight translator challenges and shed light on the cultural, religious, and political dynamics of that era.

Mark’s translation showcases the role of translation in cultural and religious engagement, reflecting intellectual and theological exchanges between Christianity and Islam. It holds relevance in contemporary interfaith dialogue, emphasizing respect for diverse religious texts and traditions while acknowledging translator biases.

Studying Mark of Toledo’s Latin translation of the Qurʾān provides valuable insights into medieval Christian understanding of Islam and the complexities of rendering a sacred text. It deepens our appreciation for the historical context and transformative power of translation in fostering dialogue and understanding across religious traditions.

Further readings

Burman, Thomas. 2007. Reading the Qur’an in Latin Christendom 1140-1560. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Cecini, Ulisse. 2012. Alcoranus Latinus: Eine sprachliche und kulturwissenschaftliche Analyse der Koranübersetzungen von Robert von Ketton und Marcus von Toledo. Berlin/Münster: LIT Verlag.

Cecini, Ulisse. 2012. “Faithful to the ‘Infidels’ Word: Mark of Toledo’s Latin Translation of the Qurʾān (1209-10).” In Frühe Koranübersetzungen, edited by Reinhold F. Glei, 83-98. Trier.

Cecini, Ulisse. 2013. “Main Features of Mark of Toledo’s Latin Qurʾān Translation.” Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean 25, no. 3: 331-344.

Pick, Lucy K. 2004. Conflict and Coexistence: Archbishop Rodrigo and the Muslims and Jews of Medieval Spain. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.